Literature review on learning styles

literature review on culture tendencysChapter 2 Literature review on training ways2.1 Background of skill styles eruditeness styles pose water received bulky attention in recent years. There ar to a greater extent than 20 style dimensions that acquire been identified so far. It has come out of the more(prenominal) general research on cognitive styles, particularly from the electron orbit of psychology. The earlier and frequently discussed dimension of acquire styles is the purpose of field dependence and field independence that is advocated by psychologist Herman Witkin. Recent researchers, such as Lardner (1989), Reid(1995), Nam Oxford (1998), Bailey Onwuegbuzie (2000), Malinsky (2001), Ehrman Leaver (2003), Decapua Wintergerst (2005), have contri neverthelessed greatly to the increment of cracking style theories.Kolbs (1976) experiential subscribeing possibility is prevalent in educational settings, because his surmisal explains more about the commandment a nd acquire ferment (Cited by Reid, 1995). Many researchers and instructors have adopted his theory and applied it into opposite educational beas. The about important thing is that he has proposed four student types on the basis of his schooling theories. And the four filler types are converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator.Claxton and Murrell (1987) use an onion metaphor to describe the multi-constructs of encyclopaedism styles (Cited by Eliason, 1995). The multi-constructs of study styles are compared as the layers of an onion. The core is composed of personality characteristics, then(prenominal) from insideto outside, the layers are sequentially information-processing the second layer, hearty interaction the third layer, and instructional layer the fourth and the outermost layer. The core is the mostm constant and stable part, but the successive layers around it tin can be slightly changed to some extent.Reid (1995) divides the eruditeness-style researche s into triplet major categories cognitive discipline styles, sensory acquisition styles, and personality styles. cognitive eruditeness styles, according to her introduction, include field-independent and field-dependent influenceing styles, analytic. and global let oning styles, thoughtful and impulsive styles, and Kolbs Experiential Model. Sensory learning styles consist of perceptual learning styles and environmental learning styles. Personality learning styles are made up of Myers-Briggs Temperament styles, tolerance of ambiguity styles, right and left hemisphere styles. travel Rayner (1998) just discuss and describe the two basic dimensions of cognitive styles, including wholist-analytic and verbal-imagery styles. The wholist-analytic style students tend to organize information into wholes or parts, while verbal-imagery style learners are inclined to represent information during thinking verbally or in mental pictures.It is inevitable that diverse assessment instruments of learning styles exist. It is rough to specify a comprehensive assessment instrument because of the complex nature of learning styles. The majority of the assessment instruments are only to measure iodine or two dimensions of learning styles. For instance, OBriens (1990) learnedness Channel Preference Checklist (LCPC) and Reids (1984) Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSP) are instruments just to measure perceptual learning styles, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures personality traits, such as extr everywheresion-introversion, sensing-perception and the analogous, andOxfords (1993) Style epitome Survey (SAS) is relatively multi-dimensional and includes learning styles, such as perceptual learning styles, extroverted and introverted learning styles, cover and sequential learning styles and so on. In this study, we mainly guidance on perceptual learning style orientation course because it is one of the most obvious aspects of learning styles. Ro ssi-le (1989) refers to it as an individuals pet mode for perceiving, organizing, and retaining information. Reids (1984) Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSP) is used in this study, because of her high reliability and validity for non-native speakers. It measures six types of perceptual learning styles, including visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, individual, and multitude learning styles. Each of the learning styles possesses unique learning characteristics. Visual-style learners like to learn done eyes. For example, they prefer to obtain information through reading, computers, TV, and bulletin boards. Students of auditory learning styles rely heavily on listening or talk of the town they remember what you say. Tactile-style and kinesthetic-style learners like to learn through touching or moving and prefer to obtain information from audio tapes, lectures, class discussions, field trips, and role-plays. Individual-style learners learn best when they w ork alone, which contrasts strongly to group-style learners who learn effectively when work with early(a) students or peers. It is evident that all learners have individual attributes relating to their own learning process and learn differently because of their bio sensible and psychological differences.2.2 Definitions of styles and learning stylesThe concept of style has existed in literature for approximately a century. It can be dated back to a description of personality in untainted Greek literature about the ancient classification of temperament and human body created by Hippocrates (Riding Rayer, 1998). Styles are the words used to describe differences among battalion. They are the general, encompassing approaches a person uses to learn or to solve a problem. brownish (1994) defines it as consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preference deep down an individual. Generally speaking, styles are an individuals habitual patterns or best-loved ways of doing something that preserve consistent over a long period of time.Learning styles lead up from the concept of style. There is a lack of concept agreement over the basic terminology. The term has been used in various and sometimes enigmatic ways in the literature, often interchangeably with the terms of cognitive styles, affectional styles, or learning strategies. Cognitive styles and affective styles are only sub-constructs of learning styles and learning styles are more comprehensive. Cognitive styles are often referred to as an individuals preferred and habitual approach to organize and represent information. Its important dimensions are field-dependent and field independent, leveling and sharpening, holist and serialist, impulsive and reflective, and abstract and concrete etc. affectional styles are usually related to an individuals emotional states, including self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking and anxiety and the like. Learning styles are constant and innate and hard to be changed, w hereas learning strategies can be learned and consciously applied in different learning situations.Learning strategies are specific procedures or techniques a person consciously uses in solving a problem or in working through an assignment. Literature on interpretations of learning styles is also rich and diverse. Different researchers accent on different aspects of learning styles when rendering the definitions. Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as the cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners distinguish, interact with, and act to the learning environment (Cited by Eliss, 1994). Reid (1995) holds the view that learning styles are an individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills. It is difficult to find an overall and comprehensive definition of learning styles, but similarities can be concluded from these definitions that the characteris tics of consistency and persistence are the core of all the learning style definitions.2.3 Models of learning stylesFor researchers, it is difficult to propose a comprehensive learning case that encompasses all dimensions of learning styles. Thus the majority of learning style flummoxs focus on one or two aspects. In the adjacent part, only two learning style models are introduced and elaborated because of their great popularity in research field.2.3.1 The Dunn and Dunn learning-style modelCompared with other learning-style approaches, the Dunn and Dunn learning-style model encompasses greater comprehensiveness and consistent effectiveness. According to Dunn and Dunn (1993), learning style is the way that students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic information and is composed of both biological and developmental characteristics that make the identical instructional environments, methods, and resources effective for some learner s and ineffective for others (Cited by Dunn and Griggs, 2000).In this model, the Dunns describe learning style as the ways to affect an individuals abilities to nobleman new and difficult academic information or skills. 21 elements have been identified in this model and are classified into five categories of learning stimuli.(1) Environmental. The elements are sound, light, temperature, and design. Part of an individuals learning style depends on his or her preference regarding sound versus silence, bright versus soft lighting, warm versus cool temperatures, and formal versus cosy seating.(2) Emotional. These elements are motivation, persistence, responsibility (conformity versus nonconformity), and preference for structure versus choice.(3) Sociological. These elements describe the group in which a student prefers to learn, such as whether to learn alone, with peers, or with both a collegial or authoritative adult, andlor in a pastiche of ways as opposed to patterns or routines .(4) Physiological. These elements include perceptual strengths like auditory, visual, tactual, and kinesthetic skills time-of-day energy levels intake (snacking while concentrating) and mobility unavoidablenesss.(5) Psychological. These elements describe the way in which a student processes information. For example, analytic students focus on facts or dilate in step-by-step fashion.Gradually the facts build up to an understanding. Conversely, global students need to understand how they are learning relating to them and their lives before they can begin to focus on facts.Also, analytic students respond to printed words and numbers, whereas global students respond mend to illustrations and pictures (Searson, R., Dunn, R., 2001).In summary, Dunn and Griggs (2000) explain the theoretical base towards the Dunn and Dunn Learning-Style Model as follows1. virtually individuals can learn.2. Instructional environments, resources, and approaches respond to diverse learning-style strength s.3. Everyone has strengths, but different flock have very different strengths.4. Individual instructional preference exists and can be measured reliably (Burke, Guastello et al.,1999/2000).5. Given responsive environments, resources, and approaches, students attain statistically higher achievement- and attitude-test scores in congruent, rather than in incongruent, treatments ( Dunn Dunn, 1992, 1993 Dunn, Dunn, Perrin, 1994 Dunn, Griggs et al., 1995) they also pretend better in style-responsive environments (Oberer, 1999).6. Teachers can learn to use learning styles as a cornerstone of their instruction ( Dunn DeBello, 1999).7. Students can learn to capitalize on their learning-style strengths when concentrating on new and difficult information (P. Roberts, 1999 Schiering, 1999).2.3.2 Kolbs learning style modelKolbs learning style model has attracted considerable interest since the mid-1970s and has greatly contributed to the development of learning style theories. Kolb remarks that learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the work shift of take (Cited by Riding Rayer, 1998). Learning style is described by Kolb (1976) as the individuals preferred method for assimilating information and makes learners actively enquire in the learning process.Hauer, Straub and Wolf (2005) state that Kolbs theory of learning is found on Deweys emphasis on the need for learning in experience on Kurt Lewins work which stresses the importance of a persons active learning and put-on Piagets theory of intelligence which explains the interaction between the person and the environment.According to Kolb, the learning model comprises two independent dimensions perception and process. The first dimension involves concrete experiences and abstract conceptualization, and the second includes active experimentation and reflective observation. Perception reflects how individuals perceive information. For example, abstract learners comprehend information conceptuall y and analytically, whereas concrete learners learn most effectively through specific learning experiences. Processing describes how individuals process information. ready learners, for instance, learn primarily by manipulating the environment, while reflective individuals typically learn by introspection and internal reflection on the external world.The learning model of two dimensions can be further classified into the following four learner typesConverger (Common sense learner) these students perceive information abstractly and learn through active experimentation. They are best at finding practical(a)(a) uses for ideas and theories. They prefer activities, such as small-group discussions, classroom participation, and computer use. Their darling scruple is How does this work?.Diverger (Innovative learner) these students learn better when they are able to perceive concretely and to process reflectively. They like to do things by themselves and have good imaginative abilities. They are interested in people and culture, and tend to be social learners. Brain-storming and lectures are their favorite activities. They usually bear the question Why do I need to learn this? in their minds. Assimilator (Analytic learner) these students learn more effectively when they are able to perceive abstractly and to process reflectively. They are good at putting the separate information into a logical organization and enjoy theoretical reading. They are more interested in facts and important things. They are more used to traditional classroom learning. Their favorite question is What do I need to learn?.Accommodator (Dynamic learner) these students learn more effectively when they are able to perceive concretely and to process actively. They are good at hands-on experience and like to consort their learning into the context of real world. They like activities of risk-taking, presentations, debates, and group discussions, but despise authority figures. They always hold t he question like What if?.The four learner types can be summarized briefly as below accommodators are people who learn primarily from hands-on experience rather than from logical compend divergers are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view assimilators are best at organizing information into a telegraphic and logical form convergers are best at finding practical use for ideas and theories.